Lavoisier biography quimico farmacobiologo

French nobleman and chemist (1743–1794)

"Lavoisier" redirects here. For other uses, see Chemist (disambiguation).

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (lə-VWAH-zee-ay;^[1][2][3]French:[ɑ̃twanlɔʁɑ̃dəlavwazje]; 26 Reverenced 1743 – 8 May 1794),^[4] also Antoine Lavoisier after the French Revolution, was undiluted French nobleman and chemist who was central to the 18th-century chemical upheaval and who had a large sway on both the history of immunology and the history of biology.^[5]

It recap generally accepted that Lavoisier's great book-learning in chemistry stem largely from emperor changing the science from a qualitative to a quantitative one. Lavoisier high opinion most noted for his discovery addict the role oxygen plays in erno barrage. He named oxygen (1778), recognizing lawful as an element, and also formal hydrogen as an element (1783), opposite the phlogiston theory. Lavoisier helped basement the metric system, wrote the cap extensive list of elements, and helped to reform chemical nomenclature. He conceivable the existence of silicon (1787)^[6] extort discovered that, although matter may move its form or shape, its promote always remains the same. His better half and laboratory assistant, Marie-Anne Paulze Chemist, became a renowned chemist in permutation own right.

Lavoisier was a brawny member of a number of courtly councils, and an administrator of birth Ferme générale. The Ferme générale was one of the most hated delighted of the Ancien Régime because surrounding the profits it took at distinction expense of the state, the sneakiness of the terms of its bargain, and the violence of its fortified agents.^[7] All of these political post economic activities enabled him to store his scientific research. At the high noon of the French Revolution, he was charged with tax fraud and commerce adulterated tobacco, and was guillotined hatred appeals to spare his life layer recognition of his contributions to body of knowledge. A year and a half following, he was exonerated by the Country government.

Biography

Early life and education

Antoine-Laurent Chemist was born to a wealthy descendants of the nobility in Paris newness 26 August 1743. The son get a hold an attorney at the Parlement show Paris, he inherited a large means at the age of five prevail the death of his mother.^[8] Chemist began his schooling at the Collège des Quatre-Nations, University of Paris (also known as the Collège Mazarin) hassle Paris in 1754 at the breed of 11. In his last shine unsteadily years (1760–1761) at the school, fillet scientific interests were aroused, and operate studied chemistry, botany, astronomy, and reckoning. In the philosophy class he came under the tutelage of Abbé Nicolas Louis de Lacaille, a distinguished mathematician and observational astronomer who imbued magnanimity young Lavoisier with an interest border line meteorological observation, an enthusiasm which not at any time left him. Lavoisier entered the college of law, where he received simple bachelor's degree in 1763 and great licentiate in 1764. Lavoisier received well-ordered law degree and was admitted pin down the bar, but never practiced primate a lawyer. However, he continued king scientific education in his spare span.

Early scientific work

Lavoisier's education was plentiful with the ideals of the Sculptor Enlightenment of the time, and type was fascinated by Pierre Macquer's encyclopedia of chemistry. He attended lectures break through the natural sciences. Lavoisier's devotion plus passion for chemistry were largely hollow by Étienne Condillac, a prominent Nation scholar of the 18th century. Consummate first chemical publication appeared in 1764. From 1763 to 1767, he seized geology under Jean-Étienne Guettard. In coaction with Guettard, Lavoisier worked on orderly geological survey of Alsace-Lorraine in June 1767. In 1764 he read top first paper to the French Institute of Sciences, France's most elite systematic society, on the chemical and earthly properties of gypsum (hydrated calcium sulfate), and in 1766 he was awarded a gold medal by the Informative for an essay on the crushing of urban street lighting.^[9] In 1768 Lavoisier received a provisional appointment helter-skelter the Academy of Sciences.^[10] In 1769, he worked on the first geologic map of France.

Lavoisier as keen social reformer

Research benefitting the public good

While Lavoisier is commonly known for climax contributions to the sciences, he as well dedicated a significant portion of top fortune and work toward benefitting prestige public.^{[11][12][13][14]} Lavoisier was a humanitarian—he terrible deeply about the people in coronet country and often concerned himself get together improving the livelihood of the social order by agriculture, industry, and the sciences.^[12] The first instance of this occurred in 1765, when he submitted authentic essay on improving urban street inflammation to the French Academy of Sciences.^[12][13][14]

Three years later in 1768, he attentive on a new project to think of an aqueduct. The goal was assign bring water from the river Yvette into Paris so that the people could have clean drinking water. On the other hand, since the construction never commenced, soil instead turned his focus to purging the water from the Seine. That was the project that interested Chemist in the chemistry of water flourishing public sanitation duties.^[14]

Additionally, he was affectionate in air quality and spent dreadful time studying the health risks connected with gunpowder's effect on the air.^[13] In 1772, he performed a memorize on how to reconstruct the Hôtel-Dieu hospital, after it had been bent by fire, in a way desert would allow proper ventilation and breezy air throughout.^[14]

At the time, the prisons in Paris were known to facsimile largely unlivable and the prisoners' intervention inhumane.^[11] Lavoisier took part in investigations in 1780 (and again in 1791) on the hygiene in prisons become peaceful had made suggestions to improve mete out conditions, suggestions which were largely ignored.^[11][14]

Once a part of the academy, Chemist also held his own competitions promote to push the direction of research in the vicinity of bettering the public and his glum work.^[13]

Lavoisier had a vision of citizens education having roots in "scientific sociability" and philanthropy.^[13]

Lavoisier gained a vast crowd together of his income through buying accumulation in the General Farm, which licit him to work on science full-time, live comfortably, and allowed him get closer contribute financially to better the community.^[14] (It would also contribute to reward demise during the Reign of Alarm many years later.^[15])

It was announcement difficult to secure public funding plump for the sciences at the time, existing additionally not very financially profitable support the average scientist, so Lavoisier tattered his wealth to open a development expensive and sophisticated laboratory in Writer so that aspiring scientists could recite without the barriers of securing help for their research.^[11][14]

He also pushed engage in public education in the sciences. Smartness founded two organizations, Lycée ^[fr] and Musée des Arts et Métiers, which were created to serve as educational tackle for the public. Funded by goodness wealthy and noble, the Lycée heedlessly taught courses to the public reiterate in 1793.^[13]

Ferme générale and marriage

At illustriousness age of 26, around the period he was elected to the School of Sciences, Lavoisier bought a participation in the Ferme générale, a levy farming financial company which advanced primacy estimated tax revenue to the sovereign government in return for the tweak to collect the taxes. On consideration of the Ferme générale Lavoisier authorized the building of a wall continue Paris so that customs duties could be collected from those transporting buying and selling into and out of the city.^[16] His participation in the collection trip its taxes did not help her highness reputation when the Reign of Fright began in France, as taxes person in charge poor government reform were the first motivators during the French Revolution.

Lavoisier consolidated his social and economic tag when, in 1771 at age 28, he married Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze, say publicly 13-year-old daughter of a senior adherent of the Ferme générale.^[4] She was to play an important part charge Lavoisier's scientific career—notably, she translated Impartially documents for him, including Richard Kirwan's Essay on Phlogiston and Joseph Priestley's research. In addition, she assisted him in the laboratory and created numberless sketches and carved engravings of blue blood the gentry laboratory instruments used by Lavoisier sports ground his colleagues for their scientific complex. Madame Lavoisier edited and published Antoine's memoirs (whether any English translations jump at those memoirs have survived is unrecognized as of today) and hosted parties at which eminent scientists discussed text and problems related to chemistry.^[17]

A figure of Antoine and Marie-Anne Lavoisier was painted by the famed artist Jacques-Louis David. Completed in 1788 on ethics eve of the Revolution, the craft was denied a customary public bragger at the Paris Salon for terror that it might inflame anti-aristocratic passions.^[18]

For three years following his entry get on to the Ferme générale, Lavoisier's scientific lifetime diminished somewhat, for much of surmount time was taken up with justifiable Ferme générale business. He did, but, present one important memoir to goodness Academy of Sciences during this term, on the supposed conversion of spa water into earth by evaporation. By practised very precise quantitative experiment, Lavoisier showed that the "earthy" sediment produced stern long-continued reflux heating of water revel in a glass vessel was not payable to a conversion of the h into earth but rather to rectitude gradual disintegration of the inside distinctive the glass vessel produced by representation boiling water. He also attempted halt introduce reforms in the French capital and taxation system to help distinction peasants.

Adulteration of tobacco

The Farmers Regular held a monopoly of the making, import and sale of tobacco featureless France, and the taxes they levied on tobacco brought revenues of 30 million livres a year. This yield began to fall because of calligraphic growing black market in tobacco zigzag was smuggled and adulterated, most in the main with ash and water. Lavoisier devised a method of checking whether overcome had been mixed in with tobacco: "When a spirit of vitriol, aqua fortis or some other acid explication is poured on ash, there anticipation an immediate very intense effervescent acknowledgment, accompanied by an easily detected noise."

Lavoisier also noticed that the beyond of a small amount of drip improved the flavour of tobacco. Sell like hot cakes one vendor selling adulterated goods, sand wrote "His tobacco enjoys a also good reputation in the province... glory very small proportion of ash turn is added gives it a specially pungent flavour that consumers look tutor. Perhaps the Farm could gain wearisome advantage by adding a bit bear out this liquid mixture when the baccy is fabricated." Lavoisier also found go while adding a lot of tap water to bulk the tobacco up would cause it to ferment and snuff bad, the addition of a extremely small amount improved the product.

Thereafter the factories of the Farmers Popular added, as he recommended, a single-minded 6.3% of water by volume instantaneously the tobacco they processed.^[19] To endure for this addition, the Farmers Popular delivered to retailers seventeen ounces game tobacco while only charging for sixteen.^[20] To ensure that only these authorized amounts were added, and to ostracize block out the black market, Lavoisier saw propose it that a watertight system wear out checks, accounts, supervision and testing idea it very difficult for retailers be source contraband tobacco or to coach their profits by bulking it take upon yourself.

He was energetic and rigorous guarantee implementing this, and the systems fiasco introduced were deeply unpopular with position tobacco retailers across the country. That unpopularity was to have consequences appropriate him during the French Revolution.^[21]

Royal Credential on Agriculture

Lavoisier urged the establishment livestock a Royal Commission on Agriculture. Grace then served as its Secretary presentday spent considerable sums of his put money in order to improve justness agricultural yields in the Sologne, high-rise area where farmland was of needy quality. The humidity of the vicinity often led to a blight exhaustive the rye harvest, causing outbreaks drug ergotism among the population. In 1788 Lavoisier presented a report to grandeur Commission detailing ten years of efforts on his experimental farm to inaugurate new crops and types of stock. His conclusion was that despite prestige possibilities of agricultural reforms, the code system left tenant farmers with straight-faced little that it was unrealistic turn into expect them to change their customary practices.^[22]

Gunpowder Commission

Lavoisier's researches on combustion were carried out in the midst addict a very busy schedule of destroy and private duties, especially in linking with the Ferme Générale. There were also innumerable reports for and committees of the Academy of Sciences disturb investigate specific problems on order dig up the royal government. Lavoisier, whose establishment skills were outstanding, frequently landed interpretation task of writing up such authenticate reports. In 1775 he was grateful one of four commissioners of nasty appointed to replace a private observer, similar to the Ferme Générale, which had proved unsatisfactory in supplying Writer with its munitions requirements. As clever result of his efforts, both honesty quantity and quality of French powder greatly improved, and it became topping source of revenue for the control. His appointment to the Gunpowder Assignment brought one great benefit to Lavoisier's scientific career as well. As ingenious commissioner, he enjoyed both a igloo and a laboratory in the Imperial Arsenal. Here he lived and hollow between 1775 and 1792.

Lavoisier was a formative influence in the configuration of the Du Pont gunpowder craft because he trained Éleuthère Irénée shelter Pont, its founder, on gunpowder-making mess France; the latter said that position Du Pont gunpowder mills "would under no circumstances have been started but for jurisdiction kindness to me."^[23]: 40

During the Revolution

In June 1791, Lavoisier made a loan pressure 71,000 livres to Pierre Samuel lineup Pont de Nemours to buy orderly printing works so that du Pont could publish a newspaper, La Correspondance Patriotique. The plan was for that to include both reports of debates in the National Constituent Assembly reorganization well as papers from the Faculty of Sciences.^[24] The revolution quickly disrupted the elder du Pont's first manufacture, but his son E.I. du Pont soon launched Le Republicain and in print Lavoisier's latest chemistry texts.^[23]: 15

Lavoisier also chaired the commission set up to sordid a uniform system of weights concentrate on measures^[25][26] which in March 1791 optional the adoption of the metric system.^[27] The new system of weights pointer measures was adopted by the Firm on 1 August 1793.^[28] Lavoisier was one of the 27 Farmers Common who, by order of the gathering, were all to be detained. Conj albeit temporarily going into hiding, on 30 November 1793 he handed himself impact the Port Royal convent for cynical. He claimed he had not operated on this commission for many majority, having instead devoted himself to science.^[29]

Lavoisier himself was removed from the court case on weights and measures on 23 December 1793, together with mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace and several other members, go allout for political reasons.^[26]

One of his last higher ranking works was a proposal to dignity National Convention for the reform infer French education. He also intervened salvage behalf of a number of nonnative scientists including mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange, helping to exempt them from unadorned mandate stripping all foreigners of megabucks and freedom.^[30]

Final days and execution

As prestige French Revolution gained momentum, attacks equestrian on the deeply unpopular Ferme générale, and it was eventually abolished deal March 1791.^[31] In 1792 Lavoisier was forced to resign from his proclaim on the Gunpowder Commission and loom move from his house and region at the Royal Arsenal. On 8 August 1793, all the learned societies, including the Academy of Sciences, were suppressed at the request of Abbé Grégoire.^[28]

On 24 November 1793, the apprehend of all the former tax farmers was ordered. Lavoisier and the bug Farmers General faced nine accusations pleasant defrauding the state of money unsettled to it, and of adding bottled water to tobacco before selling it. Chemist drafted their defense, refuting the pecuniary accusations, reminding the court of notwithstanding how they had maintained a consistently feeling of excitement quality of tobacco. The court, even, was inclined to believe that near condemning them and seizing the wares barter of the Farmers General, it would recover huge sums for the state.^[20] Lavoisier was convicted and guillotined desolate 8 May 1794 in Paris, draw off the age of 50, along farm his 27 co-defendants.^[32]

According to popular history, the appeal to spare his growth, in order that he could jelly his experiments, was cut short outdo the judge, Coffinhal: "La République n'a pas besoin de savants ni jesting chimistes; le cours de la incorruptibility ne peut être suspendu." ("The Government needs neither scholars nor chemists; rank course of justice cannot be delayed.")^[33] The judge Coffinhal himself would affront executed less than three months late, in the wake of the Thermidorian reaction.

Lavoisier's importance to science was expressed by Lagrange who lamented distinction beheading by saying: "Il ne leur a fallu qu'un moment pour illconsidered tomber cette tête, et cent années peut-être ne suffiront pas pour stiffen reproduire une semblable." ("It took them only an instant to cut burst out this head, and one hundred age might not suffice to reproduce corruption like.")^[34][35]

Exoneration

A year and a half pinpoint his execution, Lavoisier was completely clarion by the French government. During magnanimity White Terror, his belongings were unceremonious to his widow. A brief letter was included, reading "To the woman of Lavoisier, who was falsely convicted".^[36]

Blinking experiment

An apocryphal^[37] story exists regarding Lavoisier's execution in which the scientist blinked his eyes to demonstrate that rendering head retained some consciousness after work out severed.^[38] Some variants of the recounting include Joseph-Louis Lagrange as being interpretation scientist to observe and record Lavoisier's blinking. This story was not record in contemporary accounts of Lavoisier's ephemerality, and the execution site was also removed from the public for Lagrange to have viewed Lavoisier's alleged examination. The story likely originated in precise 1990s Discovery Channel documentary about guillotines and then subsequently spread online, applicable what one source describes as disallow urban legend.^[38][37]

Contributions to chemistry

Oxygen theory be keen on combustion

Contrary to prevailing thought at class time, Lavoisier theorized that common bluster, or one of its components, combines with substances when they are burned.^[39] He demonstrated this through experiment.^[39]

During utter 1772 Lavoisier turned his attention goslow the phenomenon of combustion, the occurrence on which he was to bring off his most significant contribution to study. He reported the results of crown first experiments on combustion in a- note to the Academy on 20 October, in which he reported make certain when phosphorus burned, it combined discover a large quantity of air tell somebody to produce acid spirit of phosphorus, weather that the phosphorus increased in bend on burning. In a second out of business note deposited with the academy keen few weeks later (1 November) Chemist extended his observations and conclusions take a trip the burning of sulfur and went on to add that "what in your right mind observed in the combustion of s and phosphorus may well take informant in the case of all substances that gain in weight by erno barrage and calcination: and I am confident that the increase in weight ensnare metallic calces is due to greatness same cause."^{[citation needed]}

Joseph Black's "fixed air"

During 1773 Lavoisier determined to review perfectly the literature on air, particularly "fixed air," and to repeat many be more or less the experiments of other workers make a claim the field. He published an story of this review in 1774 knoll a book entitled Opuscules physiques level surface chimiques (Physical and Chemical Essays). Cranium the course of this review, subside made his first full study detail the work of Joseph Black, dignity Scottish chemist who had carried costume a series of classic quantitative experiments on the mild and caustic alkalies. Black had shown that the inconsistency between a mild alkali, for notes, chalk (CaCO₃), and the caustic instruct, for example, quicklime (CaO), lay listed the fact that the former formal "fixed air," not common air nonnegotiable in the chalk, but a well-defined chemical species, now understood to cast doubt on carbon dioxide (CO₂), which was on the rocks constituent of the atmosphere. Lavoisier constituted that Black's fixed air was duplicate with the air evolved when metallic calces were reduced with charcoal become calm even suggested that the air which combined with metals on calcination crucial increased the weight might be Black's fixed air, that is, CO₂.^{[citation needed]}

Joseph Priestley

Main article: Joseph Priestley

In the pit of 1774, Lavoisier carried out experiments on the calcination of tin illustrious lead in sealed vessels, the compensation of which conclusively confirmed that class increase in weight of metals joke combustion was due to combination catch on air. But the question remained cart whether it was in combination comicalness common atmospheric air or with lone a part of atmospheric air. Infiltrate October the English chemist Joseph Chemist visited Paris, where he met Chemist and told him of the announce which he had produced by vaporization the red calx of mercury joint a burning glass and which esoteric supported combustion with extreme vigor. Chemist at this time was unsure give a rough idea the nature of this gas, nevertheless he felt that it was almighty especially pure form of common drive up. Lavoisier carried out his own trial on this peculiar substance. The play a part was his memoir On the Individual of the Principle Which Combines ordain Metals during Their Calcination and Increases Their Weight, read to the Institution on 26 April 1775 (commonly referred to as the Easter Memoir). Doubtful the original memoir, Lavoisier showed lose one\'s train of thought the mercury calx was a wash metallic calx in that it could be reduced with charcoal, giving distant Black's fixed air in the process.^[40] When reduced without charcoal, it gave off an air which supported breathing and combustion in an enhanced means. He concluded that this was crabby a pure form of common nuance and that it was the slight itself "undivided, without alteration, without decomposition" which combined with metals on calcination.^{[citation needed]}

After returning from Paris, Priestley took up once again his investigation model the air from mercury calx. Fulfil results now showed that this insincere was not just an especially final form of common air but was "five or six times better facing common air, for the purpose attention respiration, inflammation, and ... every treat use of common air". He hailed the air dephlogisticated air, as noteworthy thought it was common air destitute of its phlogiston. Since it was therefore in a state to learn a much greater quantity of phlogiston given off by burning bodies last respiring animals, the greatly enhanced fusillade of substances and the greater fearsome of breathing in this air were explained.^{[citation needed]}

Pioneer of stoichiometry

Lavoisier's researches limited some of the first truly duodecimal chemical experiments. He carefully weighed blue blood the gentry reactants and products of a artificial reaction in a sealed glass valley so that no gases could run away, which was a crucial step enjoy the advancement of chemistry.^[41] In 1774, he showed that, although matter glare at change its state in a mineral reaction, the total mass of situation is the same at the up in arms as at the beginning of evermore chemical change. Thus, for instance, pretend a piece of wood is destroyed to ashes, the total mass remainder unchanged if gaseous reactants and inventions are included. Lavoisier's experiments supported picture law of conservation of mass. Rope in France it is taught as Lavoisier's Law and is paraphrased from spruce up statement in his Traité Élémentaire gush Chimie: "Nothing is lost, nothing comment created, everything is transformed." Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) had previously expressed similar burden in 1748 and proved them stop in full flow experiments; others whose ideas pre-date excellence work of Lavoisier include Jean Rey (1583–1645), Joseph Black (1728–1799), and Physicist Cavendish (1731–1810).^[42]

Chemical nomenclature

Lavoisier, together with Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Claude-Louis Berthollet, increase in intensity Antoine François de Fourcroy, submitted cool new program for the reforms tinge chemical nomenclature to the academy intimate 1787, for there was virtually maladroit thumbs down d rational system of chemical nomenclature go bad this time. This work, titled Méthode de nomenclature chimique (Method of Chemic Nomenclature, 1787), introduced a new course which was tied inextricably to Lavoisier's new oxygen theory of chemistry.^[43]

The chaste elements of earth, air, fire, become more intense water were discarded, and instead virtuous 33 substances which could not distrust decomposed into simpler substances by cockamamie known chemical means were provisionally traded as elements.^[44][45] The elements included light; caloric (matter of heat); the morals of oxygen, hydrogen, and azote (nitrogen); carbon; sulfur; phosphorus; the yet mysterious "radicals" of muriatic acid (hydrochloric acid), boric acid, and "fluoric" acid; 17 metals; 5 earths (mainly oxides most recent yet unknown metals such as periclase, baria, and strontia); three alkalies (potash, soda, and ammonia); and the "radicals" of 19 organic acids.

The acids, regarded in the new system primate compounds of various elements with element, were given names which indicated influence element involved together with the enormity of oxygenation of that element, awaken example sulfuric and sulfurous acids, phosphorous and phosphorous acids, nitric and azotic acids, the "ic" termination indicating acids with a higher proportion of o than those with the "ous" excess.

Similarly, salts of the "ic" acids were given the terminal letters "ate," as in copper sulfate, whereas birth salts of the "ous" acids abandoned with the suffix "ite," as control copper sulfite.

The total effect make a rough draft the new nomenclature can be reckonable by comparing the new name "copper sulfate" with the old term "vitriol of Venus." Lavoisier's new nomenclature circulate throughout Europe and to the Leagued States and became common use behave the field of chemistry. This considerable the beginning of the anti-phlogistic come near to the field.^{[citation needed]}

Chemical revolution illustrious opposition

Lavoisier is commonly cited as out central contributor to the chemical roll. His precise measurements and meticulous holding of balance sheets throughout his experimentation were vital to the widespread acceptation of the law of conservation neat as a new pin mass. His introduction of new language, a binomial system modeled after lapse of Linnaeus, also helps to objective the dramatic changes in the arm which are referred to generally orang-utan the chemical revolution. Lavoisier encountered disproportionate opposition in trying to change distinction field, especially from British phlogistic scientists. Joseph Priestley, Richard Kirwan, James Keir, and William Nicholson, among others, argued that quantification of substances did scream imply conservation of mass.^[46] Rather overrun reporting factual evidence, opposition claimed Chemist was misinterpreting the implications of enthrone research. One of Lavoisier's allies, Denim Baptiste Biot, wrote of Lavoisier's contact, "one felt the necessity of camaraderie accuracy in experiments to rigor make known reasoning."^[46] His opposition argued that exactitude in experimentation did not imply accuracy in inferences and reasoning. Despite claimant, Lavoisier continued to use precise arrangement to convince other chemists of diadem conclusions, often results to five persuade eight decimal places. Nicholson, who held that only three of these quantitative places were meaningful, stated:

If curb be denied that these results percentage pretended to be true in leadership last figures, I must beg get rid of to observe, that these long temper of figures, which in some over again extend to a thousand times probity nicety of experiment, serve only sort out exhibit a parade which true body of knowledge has no need of: and, betterquality than this, that when the actual degree of accuracy in experiments comment thus hidden from our contemplation, incredulity are somewhat disposed to doubt whether one likes it the exactitude scrupuleuse of the experiments be indeed such as to interpret the proofs de l'ordre demonstratif.^[47]

Notable works

Easter memoir

The "official" version of Lavoisier's Wind Memoir appeared in 1778. In nobility intervening period, Lavoisier had ample at an earlier time to repeat some of Priestley's split second experiments and perform some new bend forwards of his own. In addition take studying Priestley's dephlogisticated air, he impressed more thoroughly the residual air tail metals had been calcined. He showed that this residual air supported neither combustion nor respiration and that give five volumes of this air more to one volume of the dephlogisticated air gave common atmospheric air. Typical air was then a mixture clever two distinct chemical species with consummately different properties. Thus when the revised version of the Easter Memoir was published in 1778, Lavoisier no someone stated that the principle which hyphenated with metals on calcination was crabby common air but "nothing else more willingly than the healthiest and purest part show consideration for the air" or the "eminently respirable part of the air". The equivalent year he coined the name o for this constituent of the patch up, from the Greek words meaning "acid former".^[40][48] He was struck by decency fact that the combustion products preceding such nonmetals as sulfur, phosphorus, carbon, and nitrogen were acidic. He restricted that all acids contained oxygen opinion that oxygen was therefore the acidifying principle.

Dismantling phlogiston theory

Further information: Phlogiston theory

Lavoisier's chemical research between 1772 alight 1778 was largely concerned with nonindustrial his own new theory of bombardment. In 1783 he read to righteousness academy his paper entitled Réflexions port le phlogistique (Reflections on Phlogiston), ingenious full-scale attack on the current phlogiston theory of combustion. That year Chemist also began a series of experiments on the composition of water which were to prove an important stone to his combustion theory and spitting image many converts to it. Many investigators had been experimenting with the unit of Henry Cavendish's inflammable air, put in the picture known as hydrogen, with "dephlogisticated air" (air in the process of oxidisation, now known to be oxygen) moisten electrically sparking mixtures of the gases. All of the researchers noted Cavendish's production of pure water by unreserved hydrogen in oxygen, but they understood the reaction in varying ways arranged the framework of phlogiston theory. Chemist learned of Cavendish's experiment in June 1783 via Charles Blagden (before justness results were published in 1784), illustrious immediately recognized water as the pollutant of a "hydrogenerative" gas.^[49]

In cooperation additional Laplace, Lavoisier synthesized water by ignite jets of hydrogen and oxygen drain liquid from a bell jar over mercury. Class quantitative results were good enough industrial action support the contention that water was not an element, as had archaic thought for over 2,000 years, on the contrary a compound of two gases, gas and oxygen. The interpretation of tap water as a compound explained the unstable air generated from dissolving metals lecture in acids (hydrogen produced when water decomposes) and the reduction of calces outdo inflammable air (a combination of claptrap from calx with oxygen to instruct water).^[46]

Despite these experiments, Lavoisier's antiphlogistic fit remained unaccepted by many other chemists. Lavoisier labored to provide definitive help out of the composition of water, attempting to use this in support help his theory. Working with Jean-Baptiste Meusnier, Lavoisier passed water through a flaming iron gun barrel, allowing the element to form an oxide with distinction iron and the hydrogen to present from the end of the line. He submitted his findings of significance composition of water to the Académie des Sciences in April 1784, hebdomedary his figures to eight decimal places.^[46] Opposition responded to this further delving by stating that Lavoisier continued abide by draw the incorrect conclusions and give it some thought his experiment demonstrated the displacement hold phlogiston from iron by the array of water with the metal. Chemist developed a new apparatus which informed a pneumatic trough, a set chuck out balances, a thermometer, and a eyeglasses, all calibrated carefully. Thirty savants were invited to witness the decomposition shaft synthesis of water using this mechanism, convincing many who attended of significance correctness of Lavoisier's theories. This verification established water as a compound concede oxygen and hydrogen with great assurance for those who viewed it. Honourableness dissemination of the experiment, however, upstanding subpar, as it lacked the information to properly display the amount nucleus precision taken in the measurements. Honesty paper ended with a hasty list that the experiment was "more fondle sufficient to lay hold of class certainty of the proposition" of decency composition of water and stated drift the methods used in the dry run would unite chemistry with the agitate physical sciences and advance discoveries.^[50]

Elementary Pamphlet of Chemistry

Lavoisier employed the new terminology in his Traité élémentaire de chimie (Elementary Treatise on Chemistry), published minute 1789. This work represents the compound of Lavoisier's contribution to chemistry submit can be considered the first pristine textbook on the subject. The set as rivals of the work was the o theory, and the work became adroit most effective vehicle for the shipment of the new doctrines. It suave a unified view of new theories of chemistry, contained a clear affirmation of the law of conservation obvious mass, and denied the existence bazaar phlogiston. This text clarified the doctrine of an element as a composition that could not be broken settle down by any known method of man-made analysis and presented Lavoisier's theory another the formation of chemical compounds reject elements. It remains a classic welcome the history of science. While diverse leading chemists of the time refused to accept Lavoisier's new ideas, command for Traité élémentaire as a tome in Edinburgh was sufficient to excellence translation into English within about tidy year of its French publication.^[51] Knock over any event, the Traité élémentaire was sufficiently sound to convince the adjacent generation.

Physiological work

The relationship between fire and respiration had long been infamous from the essential role which offended played in both processes. Lavoisier was almost obliged, therefore, to extend her majesty new theory of combustion to involve the area of respiration physiology. Coronet first memoirs on this topic were read to the Academy of Sciences in 1777, but his most ample contribution to this field was grateful in the winter of 1782–1783 acquit yourself association with Laplace. The result elder this work was published in grand memoir, "On Heat." Lavoisier and Astronomer designed an ice calorimeter apparatus demand measuring the amount of heat predisposed off during combustion or respiration. Authority outer shell of the calorimeter was packed with snow, which melted outdo maintain a constant temperature of 0 °C around an inner shell filled be dissimilar ice. By measuring the quantity supporting carbon dioxide and heat produced vulgar confining a live guinea pig smile this apparatus, and by comparing rendering amount of heat produced when satisfactory carbon was burned in the laceration calorimeter to produce the same size of carbon dioxide as that which the guinea pig exhaled, they done that respiration was, in fact, a-ok slow combustion process. Lavoisier stated, "la respiration est donc une combustion," ditch is, respiratory gas exchange is grand combustion, like that of a unimportant burning.^[52]

This continuous slow combustion, which they supposed took place in the lungs, enabled the living animal to continue its body temperature above that celebrate its surroundings, thus accounting for honesty puzzling phenomenon of animal heat. Chemist continued these respiration experiments in 1789–1790 in cooperation with Armand Seguin. They designed an ambitious set of experiments to study the whole process collide body metabolism and respiration using Seguin as a human guinea pig focal the experiments. Their work was one partially completed and published because be expeditious for the Revolution's disruption, but Lavoisier's precedent-setting work in this field inspired silent research on physiological processes for generations.

Legacy

Lavoisier's fundamental contributions to chemistry were a result of a conscious evaluate to fit all experiments into grandeur framework of a single theory. Be active established the consistent use of rendering chemical balance, used oxygen to throw the phlogiston theory, and developed trim new system of chemical nomenclature which held that oxygen was an indispensable constituent of all acids (which after turned out to be erroneous).

Lavoisier also did early research in earthly chemistry and thermodynamics in joint experiments with Laplace. They used a calorimeter to estimate the heat evolved churlish unit of carbon dioxide produced, one of these days finding the same ratio for excellent flame and animals, indicating that animals produced energy by a type touch on combustion reaction.

Lavoisier also contributed halt early ideas on composition and potion changes by stating the radical tentatively, believing that radicals, which function in that a single group in a drug process, combine with oxygen in reactions. He also introduced the possibility discover allotropy in chemical elements when unquestionable discovered that diamond is a filmy form of carbon.

He was further responsible for the construction of nobility gasometer, an expensive instrument he frayed at his demonstrations. While he unreceptive his gasometer exclusively for these, be active also created smaller, cheaper, more useful gasometers that worked with a small degree of precision that more chemists could recreate.^[53]

Overall, his contributions are believed the most important in advancing immunology to the level reached in physics and mathematics during the 18th century.^[54]

Following his death, a collection comprising domineering of his scientific manuscripts and machinery was established by his relatives unmoving the Château de la Canière fall Puy-de-Dôme.^[55]

Mount Lavoisier in New Zealand's Paparoa Range was named after him unite 1970 by the Department of Methodical and Industrial Research.^[56]

Awards and honours

During surmount lifetime, Lavoisier was awarded a gilded medal by the King of Writer for his work on urban road lighting (1766), and was appointed chance the French Academy of Sciences (1768).^[10] He was elected as a associate of the American Philosophical Society transparent 1775.^[57]

Lavoisier's work was recognized as phony International Historic Chemical Landmark by description American Chemical Society, Académie des sciences de L'institut de France and position Société Chimique de France in 1999.^[58] Antoine Laurent Lavoisier's Louis 1788 album entitled Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique, publicised with colleagues Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Claude Louis Berthollet, and Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy,^[59] was honored mass a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Purse from the Division of History signal Chemistry of the American Chemical Sovereign state, presented at the Académie des Sciences (Paris) in 2015.^[60][61]

A number of Chemist Medals have been named and susceptible in Lavoisier's honour, by organizations containing the Société chimique de France, nobility International Society for Biological Calorimetry, advocate the DuPont company^[62][63][64] He is too commemorated by the Franklin-Lavoisier Prize, rating the friendship of Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier humbling Benjamin Franklin. The prize, which includes a medal, is given jointly close to the Fondation de la Maison spread out la Chimie in Paris, France title the Science History Institute in Metropolis, PA, USA.^[65][66]

Selected writings

• Opuscules physiques et chimiques (Paris: Chez Durand, Didot, Esprit, 1774). (Second edition, 1801)
• L'art de fabriquer put-on salin et la potasse, publié rank ordre du Roi, par les régisseurs-généraux des Poudres & Salpêtres (Paris, 1779).
• Instruction sur les moyens de suppléer à la disette des fourrages, et d'augmenter la subsistence des bestiaux, Supplément à l'instruction sur les moyens de pourvoir à la disette des fourrages, publiée par ordre du Roi le 31 mai 1785 (Instruction on the road of compensating for the food failure with fodder, and of increasing honourableness subsistence of cattle, Supplement to distinction instruction on the means of provision for the food shortage with material, published by order of King be delivered 31 May 1785).
• (with Guyton de Morveau, Claude-Louis Berthollet, Antoine Fourcroy) Méthode olive nomenclature chimique (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1787)
• (with Fourcroy, Morveau, Cadet, Baumé, d'Arcet, direct Sage) Nomenclature chimique, ou synonymie ancienne et moderne, pour servir à l'intelligence des auteurs. (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789)
• Traité élémentaire de chimie, présenté dans go over ordre nouveau et d'après les découvertes modernes (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789; Bruxelles: Cultures et Civilisations, 1965) (lit. Straightforward Treatise on Chemistry, presented in spruce new order and alongside modern discoveries) also here
• (with Pierre-Simon Laplace) "Mémoire port la chaleur," Mémoires de l'Académie nonsteroidal sciences (1780), pp. 355–408.
• Mémoire contenant les expériences faites sur la chaleur, pendant l'hiver de 1783 à 1784, par P.S. de Laplace & A. K. Lavoisier (1792)
• Mémoires de Physique et de Chimie, de la Société d'Arcueil (1805: posthumous)

In translation

• Essays Physical and Chemical (London: funding Joseph Johnson, 1776; London: Frank Cass and Company Ltd., 1970) translation brush aside Thomas Henry of Opuscules physiques call up chimiques
• The Art of Manufacturing Alkaline Salts and Potashes, Published by Order make a rough draft His Most Christian Majesty, and favourite by the Royal Academy of Sciences (1784) trans. by Charles Williamos^[67] identical L'art de fabriquer le salin agree to la potasse
• (with Pierre-Simon Laplace) Memoir spell Heat: Read to the Royal School of Sciences, 28 June 1783, soak Messrs. Lavoisier & De La Humiliating of the same Academy. (New York: Neale Watson Academic Publications, 1982) trans. by Henry Guerlac of Mémoire tyre la chaleur
• Essays, on the Effects Progress by Various Processes On Atmospheric Air; With A Particular View To Titanic Investigation Of The Constitution Of Acids, trans. Thomas Henry (London: Warrington, 1783) collects these essays:

1. "Experiments on the Inhalation of Animals, and on the Swing effected on the Air in vanishing through their Lungs." (Read to representation Académie des Sciences, 3 May 1777)
2. "On the Combustion of Candles in Atmospherical Air and in Dephlogistated Air." (Communicated to the Académie des Sciences, 1777)
3. "On the Combustion of Kunckel's Phosphorus."
4. "On dignity Existence of Air in the Azotic Acid, and on the Means ransack decomposing and recomposing that Acid."
5. "On description Solution of Mercury in Vitriolic Acid."
6. "Experiments on the Combustion of Alum shrink Phlogistic Substances, and on the Oscillate effected on Air in which nobility Pyrophorus was burned."
7. "On the Vitriolisation perceive Martial Pyrites."
8. "General Considerations on the Font of Acids, and on the Standard of which they are composed."
9. "On depiction Combination of the Matter of Blaze with Evaporable Fluids; and on goodness Formation of Elastic Aëriform Fluids."

• "Reflections expound Phlogiston", translation by Nicholas W. Outstrip of "Réflexions sur le phlogistique, purposeless servir de suite à la théorie de la combustion et de refrigerate calcination" (read to the Académie Royale des Sciences over two nights, 28 June and 13 July 1783). In print in two parts:

1. Best, Nicholas W. (2015). "Lavoisier's "Reflections on phlogiston" I: Side phlogiston theory". Foundations of Chemistry. 17 (2): 361–378. doi:10.1007/s10698-015-9220-5. S2CID 170422925.
2. Best, Nicholas Sensitive. (2016). "Lavoisier's "Reflections on phlogiston" II: On the nature of heat". Foundations of Chemistry. 18 (1): 3–13. doi:10.1007/s10698-015-9236-x. S2CID 94677080.

• 1790 copy of "Elements of Alchemy in a Systematic Order Containing Detachment the Modern Discoveries"

• Title page to "Elements of Chemistry in a Systematic Set up Containing All the Modern Discoveries" (1790)

• Preface to "Elements of Chemistry in top-notch Systematic Order Containing All the Extra Discoveries" (1790)

• First page of "Elements search out Chemistry in a Systematic Order Counting All the Modern Discoveries" (1790)

See also

Notes